In short

Taxation is how the government raises money to run the country. It includes a mix of direct and indirect taxes, aims to fund public services, redistribute wealth, and shape economic behaviour.

Summary of Taxation (UK‑focused)

Taxation is the system through which the government raises money to fund public services such as the NHS, education, welfare, defence, and infrastructure. Taxes are collected from individuals, businesses, and transactions, and they form the backbone of public finance.

1. Purpose of Taxation

• To fund essential public services
• To redistribute wealth and reduce inequality
• To influence behaviour (e.g., duties on tobacco, alcohol, fuel)
• To support economic stability and growth

2. Main Types of Tax

• Income Tax – charged on earnings, pensions, and profits
• National Insurance – contributions towards state benefits
• VAT – a consumption tax on goods and services
• Corporation Tax – paid by companies on their profits
• Capital Gains Tax – on profit from selling assets
• Inheritance Tax – on estates above a threshold
• Council Tax – local tax based on property value
• Excise Duties – on alcohol, tobacco, fuel, etc.

3. Direct vs Indirect Tax

• Direct taxes are paid straight to the government (Income Tax, Corporation Tax).
• Indirect taxes are paid through spending (VAT, duties).

4. Progressive, Proportional, and Regressive Taxes

• Progressive: higher earners pay a higher rate (Income Tax).
• Proportional: everyone pays the same rate (some local taxes).
• Regressive: lower earners pay a larger share of their income (VAT).

5. Compliance and Enforcement

HMRC oversees tax collection, ensures compliance, and investigates evasion. Legal tax planning is allowed, but tax evasion is a criminal offence.

Income Tax

Definition

Income tax is a mandatory payment to the government based on your annual income from various sources such as employment, self‑employment, pensions, rental income, savings interest, and dividends. You only pay tax on income above your tax‑free Personal Allowance, which is for people living in the UK, £12,570 in the 2026/27 tax year.

Summary of How Income Tax Works

• What you pay tax on: Earnings from employment, profits from self‑employment, most pensions, rental income, job benefits, trust income, and savings interest above your allowance.
• What is tax‑free: Your Personal Allowance, the first £1,000 of self‑employment or property income, ISA interest, certain state benefits, and lottery/premium bond wins.
• Tax bands (England, Wales, Northern Ireland – 2026/27):
  • 0% on income up to £12,570 (Personal Allowance)
  • 20% on £12,571–£50,270 (Basic rate)
  • 40% on £50,271–£125,140 (Higher rate)
  • 45% on income over £125,140 (Additional rate)
• Important detail: Moving into a higher tax band does not mean all your income is taxed at that higher rate—only the portion within that band.
• How you pay:
  • Employees: through PAYE
  • Self‑employed: through Self Assessment
  • Some income types (e.g., savings, dividends) are taxed after employment income.
• Who pays income tax: Anyone whose taxable income exceeds their Personal Allowance, including individuals, partners in partnerships, trustees, and personal representatives handling estates. Companies pay corporation tax, not income tax.

Is Income Tax a Fair Tax

If everybody paid their fair share of income tax, that is everybody paid the same rate of tax on their earnigs, then I belive that income tax could be could be considered a fair tax.

However, as not everyone currently pays the same rate of income tax, and some people use tax avoidance, usually done by arranging their finances so as to reduce the amount of tax they pay, then I don’t believe that it can be considered a fair tax.

For example, the many poeple on the right of politics, mainly the conservatives and REFORM party usuallly state “The top 10% of the population pay 34% of the tax bill, isn’t that enough?”.

Well the answer to that question is obviously no!

This is because the top 10% actually have 90% of the wealth so shouldn’t they pay 90% of the tax bill?

The usual answer to the above statement is “Why should people expect the top 10% to pay 90% tax on their earnings, but that is not what would actually happen.

For example, and purely to simplify the maths, let’s say if there were only 100 people in the world and the toal wealth of the world was £1,000,000 and the wealth was shared equally amoung the 100 people then each person would have £10,000.

Now if each person paid 20% tax they would all pay (£10,000 x 0.20) = £2000.

Therefore the total tax bill would be £200,000 (£2000 x 100), which is 20% of £1,000,000.

But as the top 10% own 90% of the wealth then they would share £900,000 or £90,000 each, whilst the least wealthy 90% would share 10% of the wealth, so would share £100,000 or £1,111.11 each

Now the least wealthy 90% would pay 20% of £1,111.11 = £222.22, Multiplying that by 90 = £19,999.99.

The top 10% would pay 20% of £90,000.00 = £18,000 X 10 – £180,000.

now everyone has paid 20% tax, which is fair

£180,000.00 + £19,999.99 = £199.999.99 approximately £200,000 which is the total tax bill.

£19,999.99 = 10% of tax bill

£180,000 = 90% of tax bill.

Therefore the wealthiest 10%, who own 90% of the wealth pay 90% of the tax bill.

Whilst the least wealthy 90%, who own 10% of the wealth pay 10% of the tax bill

But all are only paying 20% tax on their earnings!

which I believe is fair.

So why do the conservatives, and Reform believe that, the rich only paying about 34% of the tax bill, approximately third of what they should be paying is fair?

This must mean that the wealthiest people are only paying about 7% tax or about 2/3 of the wealthiest people in the country aren’t paying any tax at all.

Plus, if they are not paying any tax why would we miss them if they did leave the country?

National Insurance

National Insurance is a UK system of contributions paid by workers and employers to fund certain state benefits. It’s separate from Income Tax, but both are deducted from earnings.

NI is essentially a social security contribution, helping pay for:

• The State Pension
• NHS funding
• Maternity Allowance
• Statutory Sick Pay
• Unemployment and disability benefits

You build up your entitlement to benefits through your NI record — the number of qualifying years you’ve paid in.

Types of National Insurance Contributions

Class 1

Paid by employees and employers. Deducted automatically through PAYE.

Class 2

Paid by self‑employed people with modest profits. A flat weekly rate.

Class 4

Paid by self‑employed people with higher profits. A percentage of annual profits.

Class 3

Voluntary contributions to fill gaps in your NI record.

Who Pays National Insurance?

You pay NI if you are:

• Employed and earning above the threshold
• Self‑employed and making profits above the threshold
• Employers also pay NI contributions for their staff

People who don’t work may receive NI credits to protect their State Pension entitlement (e.g., carers, those on certain benefits).

Why National Insurance Matters

• It determines whether you qualify for the full State Pension.
• It funds key welfare and health services.
• It ensures people who cannot work still receive support.

Is National Insurance a Fair Tax

Short answer: National Insurance is partly fair and partly unfair — it depends on what you think a tax should do.

Below is a clear, evidence‑based breakdown using the most authoritative recent sources on NI.

National Insurance is not universally considered fair, and experts disagree sharply on its fairness. The debate centres on three issues: who pays, how much they pay, and what they get back.

1. NI Treats Different Types of Workers Unequally

NI is charged only on employment earnings and self‑employment profits, not on income from pensions, investments, property, or dividends. This means two people with the same total income can pay very different amounts depending on how that income is structured.

Experts argue this creates distortions and makes NI less fair than income tax, which applies consistently across income types.

2. NI Is More Regressive Than Income Tax

Employees pay 8% on earnings between £12,570 and £50,270, but only 2% above that. This means higher earners pay a lower marginal NI rate on most of their income.

Many economists argue this is regressive, because the burden falls proportionally more on lower and middle earners.

3. People Over State Pension Age Don’t Pay NI

NI stops at State Pension age, even if someone continues working. This raises fairness questions because younger workers effectively subsidise pension‑age workers who still earn income but pay no NI.

4. The Contributory Principle Has Weakened

NI was originally designed as a fair insurance system: you pay in, you get benefits out. But experts note this link has weakened over time — many benefits are now flat‑rate or means‑tested, and entitlement often doesn’t match contributions.

This undermines the idea that NI is a fair “something for something” system.

5. NI Adds Complexity and Confusion

The Institute for Fiscal Studies highlights 84 differences between NI and income tax — different bases, different periods, different rates. This complexity makes the system opaque, harder to justify, and arguably less fair.

6. Some Experts Say NI Should Be Abolished or Merged

Public Finance reports that many economists believe NI is no longer fit for purpose, arguing it creates distortions and should be merged with income tax to create a simpler, fairer system.

So, Is It Fair?

Arguments that NI is fair:

• It funds specific benefits like the State Pension.
• It reflects the idea of contributing during working life.
• Lower rates for higher earners were originally meant to reflect capped benefit entitlement.

Arguments that NI is not fair:

• Higher earners pay proportionally less.
• Pension‑age workers pay nothing.
• People with investment income avoid NI entirely.
• Complexity makes the system inconsistent and confusing.
• The contributory principle has weakened, reducing the fairness of “pay in, get out”.

Bottom line

NI is only partly fair. It has a clear purpose — funding pensions and contributory benefits — but its structure is inconsistent, regressive, and increasingly hard to justify. Many experts believe it should be reformed or merged with income tax.

In short

National Insurance is a mandatory contribution system that funds state benefits and builds your entitlement to the State Pension. Employees, employers, and the self‑employed all pay NI when their earnings exceed certain thresholds.

Value Added Tax (VAT)

What Is VAT?

VAT (Value Added Tax) is a tax charged on most goods and services sold in the United Kingdom. It is a type of indirect tax collected by businesses on behalf of HM Revenue & Customs (HMRC).

Value Added Tax (VAT) is a tax charged at each stage of production and sale — but only on the value added at that stage. It’s ultimately paid by the final consumer, not the businesses along the way.

When a VAT-registered business sells taxable goods or services, it adds VAT to the selling price. The business then pays the VAT collected to HMRC after deducting any VAT it has already paid on eligible business purchases.

Unlike Income Tax or Corporation Tax, VAT is paid by the final consumer. Businesses simply collect and report the tax to HMRC.

For example, if a product costs £100 and the VAT rate is 20% then the amount of VAT added to the cost of the product is £20.00 therefore the customer has to pay the busiess £120 for the item.

The business keeps the £100 and the £20 VAT is paid to HMRC, subject to any reclaimable Input VAT.

Key VAT Terminology You Should Know

Before exploring VAT registration and compliance, it’s useful to understand some common VAT terms.

VAT-Registered Business

A business that has successfully registered with HMRC and received a VAT Registration Number. It must charge VAT on taxable sales and submit VAT Returns.

VAT Registration Number

A unique number issued by HMRC that identifies a VAT-registered business. This number appears on VAT invoices and official tax documents.

Taxable Supplies

Goods and services that are subject to VAT. These may be charged at the standard, reduced, or zero rate, depending on the type of supply.

VAT Invoice

A document issued by a VAT-registered business showing the sale details, VAT charged, VAT Registration Number, and other information required by HMRC.

VAT Return

A report submitted to HMRC that summarises the VAT collected from customers and the VAT paid on business purchases during a specific accounting period.

Who Needs to Register for VAT?

Not every business is legally required to register for VAT. However, businesses whose taxable turnover exceeds the VAT registration threshold must register with HMRC.

Why Value Added Tax works this way

It prevents double taxation — each business only pays VAT on the value it adds.

It encourages proper record‑keeping because businesses must track VAT charged and VAT reclaimed.

It ensures the government receives tax at every stage, reducing evasion.

VAT‑exempt vs zero‑rated

Zero‑rated = taxable at 0% → You charge 0% VAT but can reclaim VAT on your costs.

Exempt = not taxable at all → You charge no VAT, but you cannot reclaim VAT on your costs.

This difference matters a lot for businesses.

VAT‑exempt goods and services

These are outside the VAT system entirely.

What this means:

• You do not charge VAT.
• You do not record them as VATable sales.
• You cannot reclaim VAT on your costs.
• Too much exempt turnover can stop you registering for VAT at all.

Common examples:

• Rent on residential property
• Insurance
• Education and training (certain types)
• Health services (GPs, dentists)
• Betting and lotteries
• Financial services (banking, loans, credit)

Example:

A private tutor charges £30 for a lesson. VAT rate: exempt → customer pays £30. The tutor cannot reclaim VAT on laptop purchases, stationery, or software.

Exempt = VAT not involved at any stage.

VAT-Zero‑rated goods and services

A business that has successfully registered with HMRC and received a VAT Registration Number. It must charge VAT on taxable sales and submit VAT Returns.

These are taxable supplies with a VAT rate of 0%.

What this means:

• You must record them as VATable sales.
• You charge 0% VAT to customers.
• You can reclaim VAT on your business expenses.

Common examples:

• Most food (bread, milk, fruit, vegetables)
• Children’s clothes
• Books and newspapers
• Public transport
• Exports outside the UK

Example:

A bakery sells bread for £1. VAT rate: 0% → customer pays £1. The bakery can still reclaim VAT on flour, electricity, equipment, etc.

Zero‑rated = VAT still in the system.

Why the distinction matters

1. Reclaiming VAT

• Zero‑rated businesses can reclaim VAT on costs → often a financial advantage.
• Exempt businesses cannot → VAT becomes a hidden cost.

2. VAT registration

If your sales are mostly exempt, you may not be allowed to register for VAT, even if your turnover is high.

3. Mixed businesses

Some businesses sell both:

• A charity shop (zero‑rated books, exempt fundraising events)
• A school (exempt education, zero‑rated printed materials)

They must track each category carefully.

Is Value Added Tax (VAT) Really a Fair Tax

When looked at from an individual point of view then Value Added Tax can be described as a fair tax as you are taxed on what you spend, and the more you spend then the more you are taxed.

However, lookded at from a societal point of view then it can be seen as an unfair tax as the greatest propotoin of the tax is paid by the least wealthy members of society.

This can be demonstrated by the following example…

Continuing the example used for income tax, where let’s say if there were only 100 people in the world and the toal wealth of the world was £1,000,000, then the wealthiest 10% who have 90% of the wealth would have £90,000 each whilst the poorest 90% would have £1,111.11 each.

Now, for example, if all of the 100 people needed to but a new toaster, and assuming that everybody bougth the same toaster at a total cost of £19.99, which was made up of £16.66 actual cost of toaster plus £3.33 VAT.

The wealthiest 10% would have paid a total of £33.30 VAT whilst the poorest 90% would have paid £299.70 VAT nine times as much tax.

Now in real life the not everyone would have bought the same toaster as some, especially the wealthiest 10% would have bought a more expenive toaster.

So, lets say that the poorest 30 people bought £19.99 toastera, the next 30 people bougth £24.99 toasters and the next 30 less wealthy people bougth £30.99 toasters, whilst the wealthiest 10 people bought toasters that cost $£49.99 each.

So this breaks down as: –

30 £19.99 toasters with £3.33 VAT = total VAT of £99.90.

30 £24.99 toasters with £5.00 VAT = total VAT of £149.94.

30 £30.99 toasters with £6.20 VAT = total VAT of £186.00.

Giving a total of £435.84

10 £99.99 toasters with £20.00 VAT = total VAT of £200.00

Therefor the poorest 90% have still paid over twice as much VAT as the wealthiest 10% even with the wealthiest 10% purchasing toasters worth at least 3 times as much as the toasters bought by the poorest 90%.

Corporation tax

Summary of Corporation Tax (UK)

Corporation Tax is a tax paid by limited companies, foreign companies with UK branches, and some organisations such as clubs, co‑operatives, and charities (on non‑charitable profits). It is charged on company profits, not personal income.

What Corporation Tax Applies To

Companies pay Corporation Tax on:

• Trading profits
• Investment income
• Chargeable gains (similar to Capital Gains Tax for individuals)
• Profits from UK activities, even if the company is based abroad

Current Corporation Tax Rates (2026/27)

The UK uses a tiered system:

• 19% for companies with profits up to £50,000
• 25% for companies with profits over £250,000
• Marginal Relief applies between £50,000 and £250,000, giving a tapered rate

This means small companies pay less, and larger companies pay more.

How Corporation Tax Is Calculated

1. Start with total income
2. Deduct allowable business expenses
3. Deduct capital allowances (e.g., equipment, machinery)
4. Apply the correct tax rate
5. Submit a Company Tax Return (CT600) to HMRC

Companies must calculate their own tax — HMRC does not do it for them.

When It Must Be Paid

• Corporation Tax is usually due 9 months and 1 day after the end of the company’s accounting period.
• Large companies may have to pay in instalments.

Allowances & Reliefs

Companies can reduce their tax bill through:

• Capital allowances
• R&D tax relief
• Loss relief (carrying losses forward or back)
• Patent Box (10% rate on qualifying profits)

These incentives are designed to encourage investment and innovation.

In short

Corporation Tax is a tax on company profits, with rates ranging from 19% to 25% depending on profit levels. Companies must calculate and report their own tax, and can reduce their bill through various reliefs and allowances.

Capital Gains Tax

Summary of Capital Gains Tax (UK)

Capital Gains Tax is a tax on the profit you make when you sell or dispose of an asset that has increased in value. You are taxed on the gain, not the total amount you receive.

What CGT Applies To

You may pay CGT when selling or disposing of:

• Property that isn’t your main home
• Shares and investments
• Valuable personal items (art, jewellery, antiques)
• Business assets

Some assets are exempt, such as cars and personal possessions worth under £6,000.

Annual Exempt Amount

Everyone gets a tax‑free allowance each tax year called the Annual Exempt Amount. Any gains above this threshold are taxable.

CGT Rates

CGT rates depend on your Income Tax band:

• 10% for basic‑rate taxpayers
• 20% for higher‑rate and additional‑rate taxpayers

Property gains (not your main residence) are taxed at:

• 18% for basic‑rate taxpayers
• 28% for higher/additional‑rate taxpayers

How CGT Is Calculated

1. Work out the sale price
2. Subtract what you paid for the asset
3. Deduct allowable costs (legal fees, improvement costs, etc.)
4. Apply your Annual Exempt Amount
5. Pay CGT on the remaining gain at the correct rate

Private Residence Relief

Your main home is usually exempt from CGT due to Private Residence Relief, unless:

• You’ve rented part of it out
• Used it exclusively for business
• It’s very large (over 5,000 sq ft)
• You haven’t lived in it the whole time

In short

Capital Gains Tax is charged on the profit you make when selling assets. Rates depend on your income level and the type of asset, with property taxed more heavily. Allowances and reliefs can significantly reduce the amount you owe.

Inheritance Tax

Summary of Inheritance Tax (UK)

Inheritance Tax is a tax on the estate (property, money, possessions) of someone who has died. It is only charged on the portion of the estate that exceeds the available tax‑free allowances.

Tax‑Free Allowances (Nil‑Rate Bands)

1. Standard Nil‑Rate Band (NRB)

• £325,000 per person
• Frozen until April 2031
• Anything above this is normally taxed at 40%.

2. Residence Nil‑Rate Band (RNRB)

• Up to £175,000 extra allowance
• Applies when leaving your main home to direct descendants (children, grandchildren, stepchildren, adopted or foster children).
• Tapered away for estates worth over £2 million.

Combined Allowances for Couples

Unused allowances transfer to a spouse or civil partner, meaning a couple can often pass on up to £1 million tax‑free.

Inheritance Tax Rates

• 40% on the value above your allowances.
• Reduced to 36% if you leave 10% or more of your net estate to charity.

Gifts and the 7‑Year Rule

Some gifts made during your lifetime may be taxed after death:

• Gifts are potentially exempt if you survive 7 years after giving them.
• If you die within 7 years, the gift may be taxed.
• Taper relief can reduce the tax on gifts made 3–7 years before death.

Small annual exemptions (e.g., £3,000 per year) also apply.

Reliefs

Certain assets can be passed on tax‑free or with reduced tax:

• Business Relief
• Agricultural Relief
• These are being reformed from April 2026 with new caps.

Who Pays the Tax?

• The estate pays the tax, handled by the executor.
• Beneficiaries usually do not pay tax on what they inherit.
• Gifts recipients may pay tax only if the donor dies within 7 years and the gifts exceed the threshold.

When Is IHT Paid?

• Normally due by the end of the sixth month after death.
• Some assets (e.g., property) can be paid in instalments over 10 years.

In short

Inheritance Tax is charged at 40% on the part of an estate above the £325,000 nil‑rate band, rising to £500,000 if a home is left to direct descendants. Transfers between spouses are exempt, and unused allowances can be combined so couples often pass on up to £1 million tax‑free. Gifts, reliefs, and careful planning can significantly reduce the bill.

Council Tax

What Council Tax Is

Council Tax is a tax paid by households to their local council for services such as adult social care, refuse collection, libraries, police and fire services. It applies to almost all domestic properties where people live permanently.

How Your Bill Is Calculated

Your Council Tax bill depends on two things:

1. Your property’s valuation band (A–H), based on its value in April 1991.
2. The Band D rate set annually by your local council.

Every band pays a percentage of the Band D rate — for example, Band A pays 67% and Band H pays 200%.

Current Council Tax Levels (2026–27)

• The average Band D bill in England is £2,392, up 4.9% from the previous year.
• Bills vary widely:
  • Cheapest: Wandsworth (£1,028)
  • Most expensive: Dorset (£2,765)

Local councils can increase bills up to a capped limit (typically 4.99%) without requiring a referendum. In 2026–27, most councils used the maximum permitted increase.

Who Has to Pay

Usually, any adult living in the property is liable. Key rules:

• Tenants normally pay, not landlords.
• Students in full‑time education are exempt.
• Single adults get a 25% discount.
• Low‑income households may qualify for Council Tax Reduction.

Discounts & Exemptions

You may pay less if:

• You live alone (25% discount).
• Everyone in the home is a full‑time student (100% exemption).
• A disabled person lives in the property (band reduction).
• The property is empty or a second home (varies by council).

What Council Tax Pays For

Council Tax funds local services including:

• Adult social care
• Waste collection
• Road maintenance
• Libraries
• Police and fire services
• Local administration The exact breakdown varies by council area.

In short

Council Tax is a property‑based local tax that funds essential local services. Your bill depends on your home’s valuation band and the rate set by your council, with discounts available for single occupants, students, disabled residents, and low‑income households.

Excise Duty

Excise duties are UK taxes on specific goods that are considered harmful, tightly regulated, or environmentally significant. They apply to both domestically produced and imported goods and are charged in addition to VAT.

Summary of Excise Duties (UK)

What Excise Duty Is

Excise duty is a tax on the consumption of specified goods, payable when those goods are released for consumption in the UK — meaning when they leave duty‑suspension warehouses or are imported for sale.

It applies to goods such as:

• Alcohol (beer, cider, wine, spirits)
• Tobacco products
• Vaping products
• Hydrocarbon oils (petrol, diesel, heating oil)
• Biofuels
• Climate Change Levy items (energy products)

Alcohol Duty

Alcohol duty is charged per litre of pure alcohol, with rates varying by alcohol strength (ABV) and product type. For example, beer between 3.5% and 8.4% ABV is charged £22.58 per litre of pure alcohol, while spirits stronger than 22% ABV are charged £33.99 per litre.

A newer system (post‑2023 reform) harmonises rates across drink types and introduces draught relief for qualifying products.

Tobacco & Vaping Duty

Tobacco products and vaping liquids have their own excise categories and updated rates (as of October 2026). These are tightly regulated due to health impacts.

Hydrocarbon Oil Duty

Fuel duty applies to petrol, diesel, and other mineral oils. Rates vary by product type, and rebates exist for certain uses (e.g., heating oil).

Climate Change Levy

A separate excise‑type charge on business energy use, designed to encourage energy efficiency. Rates are updated periodically.

How Excise Duty Works

• Goods may be held in duty‑suspension warehouses until released for consumption.
• Duty becomes payable when goods leave suspension or are imported for sale.
• Each excisable item has a tax type code and national additional code to identify the correct rate.

VAT at 20% is then applied on top of the duty‑inclusive price.

In short

Excise duties are targeted taxes on alcohol, tobacco, fuel, vaping products, and certain energy goods. They raise billions for the Treasury, discourage harmful consumption, and apply both to UK‑made and imported goods. Rates vary by product type and strength, and VAT is added afterwards.

Grumpy Welshman’s Thought’s On Taxation

Taxes can be considered as a necessary evil, that are levied on the general population to pay towards their protection, welfare and amenities.

What makes taxation so unfair is the way that all taxation appears to be levied in favour of the wealthiest members of society, with the wealthiest paying as little tax as possible at the expense of the poorest in society.

Over centuries it is this unfairness, and allowing the wealthiest in society to get even wealtthier, whilst the poorest in society have become poorer, that has led to taxation becoming more and more complicated and completely one-sided.

If only everybody in society were willing to pay their fair share of the taxes, then the tax system would be simplified overnight and many of the unfair taxes, such as VAT, National Insurance and inheritence tax could be abolished overnight.

One of the obstacles that stands in the way of a fairer tax system is that all of the media outlets whether newspapers or social media outlets are owned by people in the top 10% and they help propagate the idea that the wealthiest in society, whilst only paying a third of the tax that they should is not only right and proper, but is already to much tax for them to pay.

Centuries ago it was quite common for the wealthiest in society to pay no tax at all and to live off the proceeds of taxing the poorest in society.

So, due to the greed of the few the many will have to go on suffering.